The Ambivalent Impact of Digital Technology on Loneliness: Navigating Connection and Isolation in the Digital Age
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.61194/psychology.v2i3.523Keywords:
Loneliness, Social isolation, Mental health, COVID-19, Community interventions, Digital technology, Public health policyAbstract
Loneliness and social isolation have gained increasing attention as significant public health concerns, exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic. This study explores the psychological, social, and demographic dimensions of loneliness, emphasizing its impact on mental health and well-being. A systematic literature review was conducted using multiple academic databases, including PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science. The findings confirm that loneliness is strongly associated with depression, anxiety, and psychological distress, with young women and older adults being particularly vulnerable. Digital technology has played a dual role, offering both social support and, in some cases, reinforcing social disconnection. Regional disparities highlight that economic insecurity and limited healthcare access further exacerbate social isolation in developing nations. The discussion emphasizes the importance of targeted policy interventions, including community-based programs, mental health integration into primary healthcare, and public awareness campaigns. Technology should be used strategically to enhance social connectivity rather than replace face-to-face interactions. The study identifies key research gaps, such as the need for longitudinal studies to assess the long-term impact of loneliness and intervention effectiveness. Future research should explore the intersection of loneliness with socioeconomic determinants to develop holistic, evidence-based strategies for mitigating its effects. Addressing loneliness requires a multifaceted, collaborative approach integrating social, economic, and technological solutions to enhance overall well-being.
References
Albasheer, O., Abdelwahab, S. İ., Zaino, M., Altraifi, A. A. A., Hakami, N., El-Amin, E. I., Alshehri, M. M., Alghamdi, S. M., Alqahtani, A. S., Alenazi, A. M., Alqahtani, B. A., Alhowimel, A., Uddin, S., Khalafalla, H. E. E., & Medani, I. E. (2024). The Impact of Social Isolation and Loneliness on Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors: A Systematic Review, Meta-Analysis, and Bibliometric Investigation. Scientific Reports, 14(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-63528-4
Al‐Oraibi, A., Fothergill, L., Yıldırım, M., Knight, H., Carlisle, S., O’Connor, M. R., Briggs, L., Morling, J. R., Corner, J., Ball, J. K., Denning, C., Vedhara, K., & Blake, H. (2022). Exploring the Psychological Impacts of COVID-19 Social Restrictions on International University Students: A Qualitative Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(13), 7631. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19137631
Al‐Shatanawi, T. N., Khader, Y., ALSalamat, H., Hadid, L. A., Jarboua, A., Amarneh, B. H., Alkouri, O., Alfaqih, M. A., & Alrabadi, N. (2023). Identifying Psychosocial Problems, Needs, and Coping Mechanisms of Adolescent Syrian Refugees in Jordan. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1184098
Andersen, A. J., Mary‐Krause, M., Bustamante, J. J. H., Héron, M., Aarbaoui, T. E., & Melchior, M. (2021). Symptoms of Anxiety/Depression During the COVID-19 Pandemic and Associated Lockdown in the Community: Longitudinal Data From the TEMPO Cohort in France. BMC Psychiatry, 21(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-021-03383-z
Baloch, G. M., Sundarasen, S., Chinna, K., Nurunnabi, M., Kamaludin, K., Khoshaim, H. B., Hossain, S. F. A., & Alsukayt, A. (2021). COVID-19: Exploring Impacts of the Pandemic and Lockdown on Mental Health of Pakistani Students. Peerj, 9, e10612. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.10612
Bellhouse, C., Temple‐Smith, M., & Bilardi, J. (2018). “It’s Just One of Those Things People Don’t Seem to Talk About...” Women’s Experiences of Social Support Following Miscarriage: A Qualitative Study. BMC Women S Health, 18(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-018-0672-3
Beogo, I., Ramdé, J., Anne, A., Gagnon, M., Sia, D., & Tchouaket, É. (2023). E–Mental Health Program to Prevent Psychological Distress Among French-Speaking International Students in a Linguistic-Cultural Minority Context (Ottawa, Alberta, and Quebec): Protocol for the Implementation and Evaluation of Psy-Web. Jmir Research Protocols, 12, e47059. https://doi.org/10.2196/47059
Casanova, G., Zaccaria, D., Rolandi, E., & Guaita, A. (2021). The Effect of Information and Communication Technology and Social Networking Site Use on Older People’s Well-Being in Relation to Loneliness: Review of Experimental Studies. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 23(3), e23588. https://doi.org/10.2196/23588
Cerami, C., Santi, G. C., Galandra, C., Dodich, A., Cappa, S. F., Vecchi, T., & Crespi, C. (2020). Covid-19 Outbreak in Italy: Are We Ready for the Psychosocial and the Economic Crisis? Baseline Findings From the PsyCovid Study. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00556
Charmaraman, L., Hodes, R., & Richer, A. M. (2021). Young Sexual Minority Adolescent Experiences of Self-Expression and Isolation on Social Media: Cross-Sectional Survey Study. Jmir Mental Health, 8(9), e26207. https://doi.org/10.2196/26207
Cohen‐Mansfield, J., Hazan, H., Lerman, Y., & Shalom, V. (2016). Correlates and Predictors of Loneliness in Older-Adults: A Review of Quantitative Results Informed by Qualitative Insights. International Psychogeriatrics, 28(4), 557–576. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1041610215001532
Davis, J., Gibson, L., Bear, N., Finlay‐Jones, A., Ohan, J. L., Silva, D., & Prescott, S. L. (2021). Can Positive Mindsets Be Protective Against Stress and Isolation Experienced During the COVID-19 Pandemic? A Mixed Methods Approach to Understanding Emotional Health and Wellbeing Needs of Perinatal Women. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(13), 6958. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18136958
Dellazizzo, L., Léveillé, N., Landry, C., & Dumais, A. (2021). Systematic Review on the Mental Health and Treatment Impacts of COVID-19 on Neurocognitive Disorders. Journal of Personalized Medicine, 11(8), 746. https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm11080746
Derrer‐Merk, E., Ferson, S., Mannis, A., Bentall, R. P., & Bennett, K. (2022). Belongingness Challenged: Exploring the Impact on Older Adults During the COVID-19 Pandemic. Plos One, 17(10), e0276561. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0276561
Dornan, M., Semple, C., Moorhead, A., & McCaughan, E. (2021). A Qualitative Systematic Review of the Social Eating and Drinking Experiences of Patients Following Treatment for Head and Neck Cancer. Supportive Care in Cancer, 29(9), 4899–4909. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00520-021-06062-7
Drelich‐Zbroja, A., Jamróz-Wiśniewska, A., Kuczyńska, M., Zbroja, M., Cyranka, W., Drelich, K., Pustelniak, O., Dąbrowska, I., & Markiewicz, K. (2021). The Impact of Study Mode (Online vs. Hybrid) on Early Symptoms of Depression and Coping Strategies Among University Students in Poland in Time of COVID-19 Pandemic—Preliminary Study. Brain Sciences, 11(12), 1578. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11121578
Duarte, F., & Jiménez-Molina, Á. (2022). A Longitudinal Nationwide Study of Psychological Distress During the COVID-19 Pandemic in Chile. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.744204
Duby, Z., Bunce, B., Fowler, C., Bergh, K., Jonas, K., Dietrich, J., Govindasamy, D., Kuo, C., & Mathews, C. (2022). Intersections Between COVID-19 and Socio-Economic Mental Health Stressors in the Lives of South African Adolescent Girls and Young Women. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 16(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-022-00457-y
Ellis, W. E., Dumas, T. M., & Forbes, L. M. (2020). Physically Isolated but Socially Connected: Psychological Adjustment and Stress Among Adolescents During the Initial COVID-19 Crisis. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue Canadienne Des Sciences Du Comportement, 52(3), 177–187. https://doi.org/10.1037/cbs0000215
Gabarrell‐Pascuet, A., Lloret-Pineda, A., Franch-Roca, M., Mellor-Marsá, B., Alos-Belenguer, M. d. C., He, Y., Hafi-Elmokhtari, R. E., Villalobos, F., Bayes‐Marin, I., Pareja, L. A., Bobo, Ó. Á., Cabezas, M. E., Osorio, Y., Haro, J. M., & Cristóbal-Narváez, P. (2023). Impact of Perceived Discrimination and Coping Strategies on Well-Being and Mental Health in Newly-Arrived Migrants in Spain. Plos One, 18(12), e0294295. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0294295
Gavriluță, C., Dalban, C. M., & Ioan, B. G. (2022). Educational, Emotional, and Social Impact of the Emergency State of COVID-19 on Romanian University Students. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(7), 3990. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19073990
Glover, R. E., Schalkwyk, M. C. v., Akl, E. A., Kristjannson, E., Lotfi, T., Petkovic, J., Petticrew, M., Pottie, K., Tugwell, P., & Welch, V. (2020). A Framework for Identifying and Mitigating the Equity Harms of COVID-19 Policy Interventions. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 128, 35–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2020.06.004
Hansen, T., Nilsen, T. S., Yu, B., Knapstad, M., Skogen, J. C., Vedaa, Ø., & Nes, R. B. (2021). Locked and Lonely? A Longitudinal Assessment of Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic in Norway. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 49(7), 766–773. https://doi.org/10.1177/1403494821993711
Hards, E., Loades, M., Higson‐Sweeney, N., Shafran, R., Serafimova, T., Brigden, A., Reynolds, S., Crawley, E., Chatburn, E., Linney, C., McManus, M., & Borwick, C. (2021). Loneliness and Mental Health in Children and Adolescents With Pre‐existing Mental Health Problems: A Rapid Systematic Review. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61(2), 313–334. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjc.12331
Horigian, V. E., Schmidt, R. D., & Feaster, D. J. (2020). Loneliness, Mental Health, and Substance Use Among US Young Adults During COVID-19. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 53(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2020.1836435
Hussein, Y., Edwards, S., & Patel, H. P. (2024). Psychological Impact of Hospital Discharge on the Older Person: A Systematic Review. Geriatrics, 9(6), 167. https://doi.org/10.3390/geriatrics9060167
Imran, N., Aamer, I., Sharif, M. I., Bodla, Z. H., & Naveed, S. (2020). Psychological Burden of Quarantine in Children and Adolescents: A rapid Systematic Review and Proposed Solutions. Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences, 36(5). https://doi.org/10.12669/pjms.36.5.3088
James, P., Gatwiri, K., Mwanri, L., & Wardle, J. (2023). Impacts of COVID-19 on African Migrants’ Wellbeing, and Their Coping Strategies in Urban and Regional New South Wales, Australia: A Qualitative Study. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, 11(6), 3523–3536. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-023-01806-z
Kastner, M., Herrington, I., Makarski, J., Amog, K., Bain, T., Evangelista, V., Hayden, L., Gruber, A., Sutherland, J., Sirkin, A. J., Perrier, L., Graham, I. D., Greiver, M., Honsberger, J., Hynes, M., Macfarlane, C., Prasaud, L., Sklar, B., Twohig, M., … Holroyd‐Leduc, J. (2024). Interventions That Have Potential to Help Older Adults Living With Social Frailty: A Systematic Scoping Review. BMC Geriatrics, 24(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-024-05096-w
Kostopoulou, E. (2023). Impact of COVID-19 on Adolescent Sexual Life and Attitudes: Have We Considered All the Possible Secondary Effects of the Pandemic? European Journal of Pediatrics, 182(6), 2459–2469. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00431-023-04878-5
Liu, S., Haucke, M., Heinzel, S., & Heinz, A. (2021). Long-Term Impact of Economic Downturn and Loneliness on Psychological Distress: Triple Crises of COVID-19 Pandemic. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 10(19), 4596. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm10194596
McGowan, L., Astuti, A., Hafidz, F., Pratiwi, C., Yulian, V., Hughes, E., Pratiwi, A., Indomo, E. N., & Fu, Y. (2023). The effect of COVID-19 on women’s experiences of pregnancy, birth and postpartum in Indonesia: a rapid online survey. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 23(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-023-05566-w
Newby, J. M., O’Moore, K., Tang, S., Christensen, H., & Faasse, K. (2020). Acute Mental Health Responses During the COVID-19 Pandemic in Australia. Plos One, 15(7), e0236562. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0236562
Nguyen, T. X. T., Lal, S., Sulemana, A.-S., Yuktadatta, P., McKinnon, L., Khan, M. S. R., & Kadoya, Y. (2022). Has Smartphone Use Influenced Loneliness During the COVID-19 Pandemic in Japan? International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(17), 10540. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191710540
Ngwenya, N., Smith, T., Shahmanesh, M., Psaros, C., Munikwa, C., Nkosi, K., & Seeley, J. (2023). Social Categorisation and Social Identification: The Mediating Role of Social Isolation and Loneliness in Adolescents Living With HIV. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 31(3), 459–467. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12529-023-10205-x
O’Hare, D., Gaughran, F., Stewart, R., & Costa, M. P. d. (2024). A Cross-Sectional Investigation on Remote Working, Loneliness, Workplace Isolation, Well-Being and Perceived Social Support in Healthcare Workers. Bjpsych Open, 10(2). https://doi.org/10.1192/bjo.2024.7
Panchal, U., Pablo, G. S. d., Franco, M., Moreno, C., Parellada, M., Arango, C., & Fusar‐Poli, P. (2021). The Impact of COVID-19 Lockdown on Child and Adolescent Mental Health: Systematic Review. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 32(7), 1151–1177. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-021-01856-w
Paquet, C., Whitehead, J. C., Shah, R., Adams, A. M., Dooley, D., Spreng, R. N., Aunio, A., & Dubé, L. (2023). Social Prescription Interventions Addressing Social Isolation and Loneliness in Older Adults: Meta-Review Integrating on-the-Ground Resources. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 25, e40213. https://doi.org/10.2196/40213
Prati, G., & Mancini, A. D. (2021). The Psychological Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic Lockdowns: A Review and Meta-Analysis of Longitudinal Studies and Natural Experiments. Psychological Medicine, 51(2), 201–211. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0033291721000015
Rahiem, M. D. H., Krauss, S. E., & Ersing, R. (2021). Perceived Consequences of Extended Social Isolation on Mental Well-Being: Narratives From Indonesian University Students During the COVID-19 Pandemic. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(19), 10489. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph181910489
Robb, C., Jager, C. A. d., Ahmadi‐Abhari, S., Giannakopoulou, P., Udeh‐Momoh, C., McKeand, J., Price, G., Car, J., Majeed, A., Ward, H., & Middleton, L. (2020). Associations of Social Isolation With Anxiety and Depression During the Early COVID-19 Pandemic: A Survey of Older Adults in London, UK. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.591120
Rodriguez, M., Bellet, B. W., & McNally, R. J. (2020). Reframing Time Spent Alone: Reappraisal Buffers the Emotional Effects of Isolation. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 44(6), 1052–1067. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-020-10128-x
Sagan, O. (2020). The Lonely Legacy: Loss and Testimonial Injustice in the Narratives of People Diagnosed With Personality Disorder. Mental Health and Social Inclusion, 24(4), 241–255. https://doi.org/10.1108/mhsi-05-2020-0031
Siddiq, H., Teklehaimanot, S., & Guzman, A. A. (2023). Social Isolation, Social Media Use, and Poor Mental Health Among Older Adults, California Health Interview Survey 2019–2020. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 59(6), 969–977. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-023-02549-2
Sultana, S., Shafique, I., Majeed, N., Jamshed, S., Shahani, A. K., & Qureshi, F. (2021). Impact of Covid-19 Outbreak on Psychological Health–The Case of Bangladesh. Heliyon, 7(4), e06772. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06772
Sun, Y., Lin, S.-Y., & Chung, K. K. H. (2020). University Students’ Perceived Peer Support and Experienced Depressive Symptoms During the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Mediating Role of Emotional Well-Being. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(24), 9308. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17249308
Tam, M. T., Dosso, J. A., & Robillard, J. M. (2021). The Impact of a Global Pandemic on People Living With Dementia and Their Care Partners: Analysis of 417 Lived Experience Reports. Journal of Alzheimer S Disease, 80(2), 865–875. https://doi.org/10.3233/jad-201114
Vrach, I. T., & Tomar, R. (2020). Mental Health Impacts of Social Isolation in Older People During COVID Pandemic. Progress in Neurology and Psychiatry, 24(4), 25–29. https://doi.org/10.1002/pnp.684
Wang, Y., & Ma, Q. (2024). The Impact of Social Isolation on Smartphone Addiction Among College Students: The Multiple Mediating Effects of Loneliness and COVID-19 Anxiety. Frontiers in Psychology, 15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1391415
Werner, A. M., Tibubos, A. N., Mülder, L. M., Reichel, J. L., Schäfer, M., Heller, S., Pfirrmann, D., Edelmann, D., Dietz, P., Rigotti, T., & Beutel, M. E. (2021). The Impact of Lockdown Stress and Loneliness During the COVID-19 Pandemic on Mental Health Among University Students in Germany. Scientific Reports, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-02024-5
Wong, S. Y. S., Zhang, D., Sit, R. W. S., Yip, B. H. K., Chung, R. Y., Wong, C., Chan, D. C. C., Sun, W., Kwok, K. O., & Mercer, S. W. (2020). Impact of COVID-19 on Loneliness, Mental Health, and Health Service Utilisation: A Prospective Cohort Study of Older Adults With Multimorbidity in Primary Care. British Journal of General Practice, 70(700), e817–e824. https://doi.org/10.3399/bjgp20x713021
Yamamoto, T., Uchiumi, C., Suzuki, N., Yoshimoto, J., & Murillo‐Rodríguez, E. (2020). The Psychological Impact of ‘Mild Lockdown’ in Japan During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Nationwide Survey Under a Declared State of Emergency. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(24), 9382. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17249382
Yao-dong, L., Sun, L., & Tan, X. (2022). Mental Health Research During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Focuses and Trends. Frontiers in Public Health, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.895121
Yates, E., Buckley, L., Sterling, M., Cruwys, T., Ashton‐James, C. E., Rankin, R., & Elphinston, R. A. (2023). Interest in Digital Peer-Delivered Interventions and Preferences to Improve Pain Self-Efficacy and Reduce Loneliness Among Patients With Chronic Pain: Mixed Methods Co-Design Study. Jmir Formative Research, 7, e41211. https://doi.org/10.2196/41211
Zhen, R., Li, L., Li, G., & Zhou, X. (2021). Social Isolation, Loneliness, and Mobile Phone Dependence Among Adolescents During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Roles of Parent–Child Communication Patterns. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 21(3), 1931–1945. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-021-00700-1
Zúñiga, M. L., Mulholland, K., Lewin-Fischer, P., Roman, I., Toledo, L., & Urada, L. A. (2024). Examining the Effects of Parental Migration on Youth Mental Health and Substance Use: A Qualitative Study in Rural Yucatán, México. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1368619
